Chapter 1: Hydrogen, How Gravity Interacts With Spacetime, https://lnkd.in/ee5yy3EF
The idea of a 'vacuum' between celestial bodies is theoretical. Space is not truly empty because gravity still exerts its influence there. The phenomenon of two masses physically attracting each other has never been directly observed. Even the renowned scientist Newton refrained from making speculative hypotheses about it, stating that he had no hypothesis. The concept of a 'vacuum' also applies to the space between the nucleus of an atom and its electron shell. Using the hydrogen atom as a model, Niels Bohr accurately calculated the precise distance between the nucleus of a hydrogen atom and the orbit of its electron. This distance is equivalent to approximately one-twentieth of a nanometre. Compared to the atomic nucleus, Bohr's radius seems substantial: it is equivalent to the distance between a micro-sphere at the centre of a football stadium and the outermost rows, representing the electron's innermost orbital. The video presents a hydrogen orbital model with four quantum field levels, illustrating the eccentric orbits that produce ring-shaped bands. At each of these levels, the direction of the electron spin changes. The distance between an inner circle, shown in blue, and an outer circle, shown in green, defines a hollow spherical quantum space in which the electron occupies an orbital on the surface of a uniform transformation sphere. The distance of this sphere from the atomic nucleus corresponds to Bohr's radius. This transformation sphere fulfils the conditions of a Poincaré group and is subject to Lorentz transformation, rotation and translation. This implies that the electron can be found at any point within the hollow sphere defined by the blue and green circles. Furthermore, it can be demonstrated that the path length of an electron in the orbitals of the hydrogen atom is proportional to the radius of the blue and red semicircular arcs. Therefore, the path length for fermions can generally be expressed as 4πr, where r is the radius. Assuming that gravity is a property of spacetime, it can be stated that gravity changes its 'sign' as it passes through the four quantum field planes, manifesting as both an attractive and a repulsive force. Consequently, a balance of forces is established between the atomic nucleus and the electron shell, preventing the electron from crashing into the nucleus. This balance is consistent with astrophysical observations of black holes and the expansion of the universe.
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Chapter 2: Protium, Deuterium, and Tritium, https://lnkd.in/eF3aCZ23
Deuterium and tritium are the two heavy isotopes of hydrogen. Like hydrogen, they have only one electron in their outer shell. According to the relativistic orbital model, the orbitals of deuterium and tritium are identical to the orbital of protium, or normal hydrogen. Within the spherical cloud of the 1s orbital is an endless loop in the form of a double helix. The outer and inner radii of this loop are each determined by the 90 percent line. This line was defined arbitrarily to improve the model's manageability. It limits the probability that the respective electron will be found there. The shape of the orbitals is determined by the proton number of the atomic nucleus and the electron's quantum numbers, rather than by the nucleus's mass. Since all hydrogen isotopes have one proton, their electron shells are identical. Despite the identical shape, there are minute differences known as the isotope effect. Due to the increased number of neutrons, the heavier nucleus shifts the atom’s center of mass slightly, resulting in reduced zero-point energy and influencing bond lengths in molecules. However, the orbital itself retains its fundamental, spherically symmetric 1s shape because the double-helix-shaped loop around the atomic nucleus can rotate freely. Zero-point energy is the energy retained by a quantum system, such as a chemical bond, at absolute zero (0 K). This energy arises from constant quantum mechanical vibrations and depends on the mass of the atom. The heavier the atom, the slower it vibrates for a given bond strength. Zero-point energy (E₀) is inversely proportional to the square root of the reduced mass (μ). A heavier atom has a greater μ and therefore a lower energy value. Comparison of hydrogen isotopes: Protium (¹H) has the smallest mass. It possesses the highest zero-point energy in bonds, such as O–H or C–H bonds. Deuterium (²H or D), the heavy hydrogen atom, is twice as heavy as protium. It has a notably lower zero-point energy. Tritium (³H or T), the heaviest hydrogen isotope, is three times as heavy as protium and has the lowest zero-point energy. Due to its lower zero-point energy, deuterium lies deeper in the potential well of the chemical bond. More activation energy is required to break a bond involving deuterium than a bond involving normal hydrogen. This phenomenon is known as the kinetic isotope effect.
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Chapter 3: Helium as a role model for Quantum Gravity, https://lnkd.in/e2wUBVMy
In the relativistic spherical model, an s- orbital is considered a ring oscillation with two periods. The doubly positively charged nucleus exerts a strong attractive force on both helium electrons, forcing them independently into an orbital path involving four changes in spin (s, s’) from “up” to “down.” This ring-shaped oscillation, which may also be referred to as a standing wave, has an amplitude defined by the center line between the inner and outer 90 percent lines. These lines delimit the probability of finding the two helium electrons and comprise four arcs of equal length. Each arc is connected to the others within a common angular momentum plane (β'). The two electrons move independently on two separate transformation spheres with opposite directions of rotation in cyclonic rotation around the atomic nucleus. The electron-electron interaction is characterized by mutual repulsion between the negatively charged electrons (e), which repel one another according to Coulomb's law. The relativistic spherical model allows the two electrons of the s- orbital to lie on the surfaces of anticyclically oscillating transformation spheres of equal radius and be as far apart as possible. This quantum mechanical and dynamic choreography allows the pair of electrons to move along precise, predictable, equal-length trajectories — similar to Keplerian orbits — while simultaneously defining an entangled probability space with the inner and outer 90 percent lines. This probability space corresponds to the results of the Schrödinger equation. The probability of finding the two electrons within this space depends on the radius of the transformation sphere of the respective s- orbital and the Pauli exclusion principle. During one orbital revolution, the spin (s, s') changes from "up" to "down" four times. This means that fluid dynamic equilibrium can be achieved with just one electron, as seen with hydrogen in Chapters 1 and 2. This equilibrium enables atoms to form molecules and crystals without generating undesirable electric fields. Changing the spin direction (s, s') at least four times causes subatomic particles to behave like a fluid that can organize the development of living organisms.
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